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The English Channel (French: la Manche, 'The Sleeve'; German: Ärmelkanal, 'Sleeve Channel'; Breton: Mor Breizh, 'Sea of Brittany'; Cornish: Mor Bretannek, 'British Sea'; Dutch: Het Kanaal, 'The Channel'), also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates Southern England from northern France and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is the busiest shipping area in the world.^[1]

It is about 560 km (350 mi) long and varies in width from 240 km (150 mi) at its widest to 33.3 km (20.7 mi) in the Strait of Dover.^[2] It is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km² (29,000 sq mi).^[3]

• 2Nature
• 3Human history
• 4Population
• 5Economy
• 6History of Channel crossings

Name[edit]

Until the 18th century, the English Channel had no fixed name either in English or in French. It was never defined as a political border, and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation. Before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as 'Gaulish' (Gallicum in Latin) and French scholars as 'British' or 'English'.^[4] The name 'English Channel' has been widely used since the early 18th century, possibly originating from the designation Engelse Kanaal in Dutch sea maps from the 16th century onwards. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as Het Kanaal (with no reference to the word 'English').^[5] Later, it has also been known as the 'British Channel'^[6] or the 'British Sea'. It was called Oceanus Britannicus by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450, which gives the alternative name of canalites Anglie—possibly the first recorded use of the 'Channel' designation.^[7] The Anglo-Saxon texts often call it Sūð-sǣ ('South Sea') as opposed to Norð-sǣ ('North Sea' = Bristol Channel). The common wordchannel was first recorded in Middle English in the 13th century and was borrowed from Old French chanel, variant form of chenel 'canal'.

The French name la Manche has been in use since at least the 17th century.^[3] The name is usually said to refer to the Channel's sleeve (French: la manche) shape. Folk etymology has derived it from a Celtic word meaning channel that is also the source of the name for the Minch in Scotland,^[8] but this name was never mentioned before the 17th century, and French and British sources of that time are perfectly clear about its etymology.^[9] The name in Breton (Mor Breizh) means 'Breton Sea', and its Cornish name (Mor Bretannek) means 'British Sea'.

Nature[edit]

Geography[edit]

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows:^[10]

On the West.
A line joining Isle Vierge (48°38′23″N4°34′13″W / 48.63972°N 4.57028°W) to Lands End (50°04′N5°43′W / 50.067°N 5.717°W).
On the East.
The Southwestern limit of the North Sea.

The IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as 'a line joining the Walde Lighthouse (France, 1°55'E) and Leathercoat Point (England, 51°10'N)'.^[10] The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais (50°59′06″N1°55′00″E / 50.98500°N 1.91667°E), and Leathercoat Point is at the north end of St Margaret's Bay, Kent (51°10′00″N1°24′00″E / 51.16667°N 1.40000°E).

The Strait of Dover (French: Pas de Calais), at the Channel's eastern end, is its narrowest point, while its widest point lies between Lyme Bay and the Gulf of Saint Malo, near its midpoint.^[2] It is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m (390 ft) at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m (148 ft) between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m (85 ft) in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the former land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a maximum depth of 180 m (590 ft) in the submerged valley of Hurd's Deep, 48 km (30 mi) west-northwest of Guernsey.^[11] The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine (French: Baie de Seine).^[12]

There are several major islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast, and the Channel Islands, British Crown dependencies off the coast of France. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is deeply indented; several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey and Mont Saint-Michel, are within French jurisdiction. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a small parallel strait known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel.

The Channel acts as a funnel that amplifies the tidal range from less than a metre as observed at sea^{[clarification needed]} to more than 6 metres as observed in the Channel Islands, the west coast of the Cotentin Peninsula and the north coast of Brittany. The time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance.^[13]

In the UK Shipping Forecast the Channel is divided into the following areas, from the east:

Geological origins[edit]

The Channel is of geologically recent origin, having been dry land for most of the Pleistocene period.^[14] Before the Devensian glaciation (the most recent glacial period, which ended around 10,000 years ago), Britain and Ireland were part of continental Europe, linked by an unbroken Weald-Artois Anticline, a ridge that acted as a natural dam holding back a large freshwater pro-glacial lake in the Doggerland region, now submerged under the North Sea. During this period the North Sea and almost all of the British Isles were covered by ice. The lake was fed by meltwater from the Baltic and from the Caledonian and Scandinavian ice sheets that joined to the north, blocking its exit. The sea level was about 120 m (390 ft) lower than it is today. Then, between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago, at least two catastrophic glacial lake outburst floods breached the Weald–Artois anticline.

The first flood would have lasted for several months, releasing as much as one million cubic metres of water per second.^[15][16] The flood started with large but localized waterfalls over the ridge, which excavated depressions now known as the Fosses Dangeard. The flow eroded the retaining ridge, causing the rock dam to fail and releasing lake water into the Atlantic. After multiple episodes of changing sea level, during which the Fosses Dangeard were largely infilled by various layers of sediment, another catastrophic flood carved a large bedrock-floored valley, the Lobourg Channel, some 500 m wide and 25 m deep, from the southern North Sea basin through the centre of the Straits of Dover and into the English Channel. It left streamlined islands, longitudinal erosional grooves, and other features characteristic of catastrophic megaflood events, still present on the sea floor and now revealed by high-resolution sonar.^[17][18][19] Through the scoured channel passed a river, which drained the combined Rhine and Thames westwards to the Atlantic.

The flooding destroyed the ridge that connected Britain to continental Europe, although a land connection across the southern North Sea would have existed intermittently at later times when periods of glaciation resulted in lowering of sea levels.^[20] At the end of the last glacial period, rising sea levels finally severed the last land connection.

Ecology[edit]

As a busy shipping lane, the Channel experiences environmental problems following accidents involving ships with toxic cargo and oil spills.^[21] Indeed, over 40% of the UK incidents threatening pollution occur in or very near the Channel.^[22] One of the recent occurrences was the MSC Napoli, which on 18 January 2007 was beached with nearly 1700 tonnes of dangerous cargo in Lyme Bay, a protected World Heritage Site coastline.^[23] The ship had been damaged and was en route to Portland Harbour.

Human history[edit]

William Shakespeare, Richard II (Act II, Scene 1)

The channel, which delayed human reoccupation of Great Britain for more than 100,000 years,^[24] has in historic times been both an easy entry for seafaring people and a key natural defence, halting invading armies while in conjunction with control of the North Sea allowing Britain to blockade the continent.^{[citation needed]} The most significant failed invasion threats came when the Dutch and Belgian ports were held by a major continental power, e.g. from the Spanish Armada in 1588, Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars, and Nazi Germany during World War II. Successful invasions include the Roman conquest of Britain and the Norman Conquest in 1066, while the concentration of excellent harbours in the Western Channel on Britain's south coast made possible the largest amphibious invasion of all time, the Normandy Landings in 1944. Channel naval battles include the Battle of the Downs (1639), Battle of Goodwin Sands (1652), the Battle of Portland (1653), the Battle of La Hougue (1692) and the engagement between USS Kearsarge and CSS Alabama (1864).

In more peaceful times the Channel served as a link joining shared cultures and political structures, particularly the huge Angevin Empire from 1135 to 1217. For nearly a thousand years, the Channel also provided a link between the Modern Celtic regions and languages of Cornwall and Brittany. Brittany was founded by Britons who fled Cornwall and Devon after Anglo-Saxon encroachment. In Brittany, there is a region known as 'Cornouaille' (Cornwall) in French and 'Kernev' in Breton^[25] In ancient times there was also a 'Domnonia' (Devon) in Brittany as well.

In February 1684, ice formed on the sea in a belt 3 miles (4.8 km) wide off the coast of Kent and 2 miles (3.2 km) wide on the French side.^[26][27]

Route to Britain[edit]

Remnants of a mesolithic boatyard have been found on the Isle of Wight. Wheat was traded across the Channel about 8,000 years ago.^[28][29] '... Sophisticated social networks linked the Neolithic front in southern Europe to the Mesolithic peoples of northern Europe.' The Ferriby Boats, Hanson Log Boats and the later Dover Bronze Age Boat could carry a substantial cross-Channel cargo.^[30]

Diodorus Siculus and Pliny^[31] both suggest trade between the rebel Celtic tribes of Armorica and Iron Age Britain flourished. In 55 BC Julius Caesar invaded, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. He was more successful in 54 BC, but Britain was not fully established as part of the Roman Empire until completion of the invasion by Aulus Plautius in 43 AD. A brisk and regular trade began between ports in Roman Gaul and those in Britain. This traffic continued until the end of Roman rule in Britain in 410 AD, after which the early Anglo-Saxons left less clear historical records.

In the power vacuum left by the retreating Romans, the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great migration across the North Sea. Having already been used as mercenaries in Britain by the Romans, many people from these tribes crossed during the Migration Period, conquering and perhaps displacing the native Celtic populations.^[32]

Norsemen and Normans[edit]

The attack on Lindisfarne in 793 is generally considered the beginning of the Viking Age. For the next 250 years the Scandinavian raiders of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark dominated the North Sea, raiding monasteries, homes, and towns along the coast and along the rivers that ran inland. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle they began to settle in Britain in 851. They continued to settle in the British Isles and the continent until around 1050.^[33]

The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Viking leader Rollo (also known as Robert of Normandy). Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West FranksCharles the Simple through the Treaty of St.-Claire-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory he and his Viking allies had previously conquered. The name 'Normandy' reflects Rollo's Viking (i.e. 'Northman') origins.

The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and intermarried with the area's inhabitants and became the Normans – a Norman French-speaking mixture of Scandinavians, Hiberno-Norse, Orcadians, Anglo-Danish, and indigenous Franks and Gauls.

Rollo's descendant William, Duke of Normandy became king of England in 1066 in the Norman Conquest beginning with the Battle of Hastings, while retaining the fiefdom of Normandy for himself and his descendants. In 1204, during the reign of King John, mainland Normandy was taken from England by France under Philip II, while insular Normandy (the Channel Islands) remained under English control. In 1259, Henry III of England recognised the legality of French possession of mainland Normandy under the Treaty of Paris. His successors, however, often fought to regain control of mainland Normandy.

With the rise of William the Conqueror the North Sea and Channel began to lose some of their importance. The new order oriented most of England and Scandinavia's trade south, toward the Mediterranean and the Orient.

Although the British surrendered claims to mainland Normandy and other French possessions in 1801, the monarch of the United Kingdom retains the title Duke of Normandy in respect to the Channel Islands. The Channel Islands (except for Chausey) are Crown dependencies of the British Crown. Thus the Loyal toast in the Channel Islands is La Reine, notre Duc ('The Queen, our Duke'). The British monarch is understood to not be the Duke of Normandy in regards of the French region of Normandy described herein, by virtue of the Treaty of Paris of 1259, the surrender of French possessions in 1801, and the belief that the rights of succession to that title are subject to Salic Law which excludes inheritance through female heirs.

French Normandy was occupied by English forces during the Hundred Years' War in 1346–1360 and again in 1415–1450.

England and Britain: Naval superpower[edit]

From the reign of Elizabeth I, English foreign policy concentrated on preventing invasion across the Channel by ensuring no major European power controlled the potential Dutch and Flemish invasion ports. Her climb to the pre-eminent sea power of the world began in 1588 as the attempted invasion of the Spanish Armada was defeated by the combination of outstanding naval tactics by the English and the Dutch under command of Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham with Sir Francis Drake second in command, and the following stormy weather. Over the centuries the Royal Navy slowly grew to be the most powerful in the world.^[34]

The building of the British Empire was possible only because the Royal Navy eventually managed to exercise unquestioned control over the seas around Europe, especially the Channel and the North Sea. During the Seven Years' War, France attempted to launch an invasion of Britain. To achieve this France needed to gain control of the Channel for several weeks, but was thwarted following the British naval victory at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759.

Another significant challenge to British domination of the seas came during the Napoleonic Wars. The Battle of Trafalgar took place off the coast of Spain against a combined French and Spanish fleet and was won by Admiral Horatio Nelson, ending Napoleon's plans for a cross-Channel invasion and securing British dominance of the seas for over a century.

First World War[edit]

The exceptional strategic importance of the Channel as a tool for blockade was recognised by the First Sea Lord Admiral Fisher in the years before World War I. 'Five keys lock up the world! Singapore, the Cape, Alexandria, Gibraltar, Dover.'^[35] However, on 25 July 1909 Louis Blériot made the first Channel crossing from Calais to Dover in an aeroplane. Blériot's crossing signalled the end of the Channel as a barrier-moat for England against foreign enemies.

Because the Kaiserliche Marine surface fleet could not match the British Grand Fleet, the Germans developed submarine warfare, which was to become a far greater threat to Britain. The Dover Patrol was set up just before the war started to escort cross-Channel troopships and to prevent submarines from sailing in the Channel, obliging them to travel to the Atlantic via the much longer route around Scotland.

On land, the German army attempted to capture Channel ports in the Race to the Sea but although the trenches are often said to have stretched 'from the frontier of Switzerland to the English Channel', they reached the coast at the North Sea. Much of the British war effort in Flanders was a bloody but successful strategy to prevent the Germans reaching the Channel coast.

At the outset of the war, an attempt was made to block the path of U-boats through the Dover Strait with naval minefields. By February 1915, this had been augmented by a 25 kilometres (16 mi) stretch of light steel netting called the Dover Barrage, which it was hoped would ensnare submerged submarines. After initial success, the Germans learned how to pass through the barrage, aided by the unreliability of British mines.^[36] On 31 January 1917, the Germans restarted unrestricted submarine warfare leading to dire Admiralty predictions that submarines would defeat Britain by November,^[37] the most dangerous situation Britain faced in either world war.

The Battle of Passchendaele in 1917 was fought to reduce the threat by capturing the submarine bases on the Belgian coast, though it was the introduction of convoys and not capture of the bases that averted defeat. In April 1918 the Dover Patrol carried out the Zeebrugge Raid against the U-boat bases. During 1917, the Dover Barrage was re-sited with improved mines and more effective nets, aided by regular patrols by small warships equipped with powerful searchlights. A German attack on these vessels resulted in the Battle of Dover Strait in 1917.^[38] A much more ambitious attempt to improve the barrage, by installing eight massive concrete towers across the strait was called the Admiralty M-N Scheme but only two towers were nearing completion at the end of the war and the project was abandoned.^[39]

The naval blockade in the Channel and North Sea was one of the decisive factors in the German defeat in 1918.^[40]

Second World War[edit]

During the Second World War, naval activity in the European theatre was primarily limited to the Atlantic. During the Battle of France in May 1940, the German forces succeeded in capturing both Boulogne and Calais, thereby threatening the line of retreat for the British Expeditionary Force. By a combination of hard fighting and German indecision, the port of Dunkirk was kept open allowing 338,000 Allied troops to be evacuated in Operation Dynamo. More than 11,000 were evacuated from Le Havre during Operation Cycle^[41] and a further 192,000 were evacuated from ports further down the coast in Operation Ariel in June 1940.^[42] The early stages of the Battle of Britain^[43] featured German air attacks on Channel shipping and ports; despite these early successes against shipping the Germans did not win the air supremacy necessary for Operation Sealion, the projected cross-Channel invasion.

The Channel subsequently became the stage for an intensive coastal war, featuring submarines, minesweepers, and Fast Attack Craft.^[44]

The narrow waters of the Channel were considered too dangerous for major warships until the Normandy Landings with the exception, for the German Kriegsmarine, of the Channel Dash (Operation Cerberus) in February 1942, and this required the support of the Luftwaffe in Operation Thunderbolt.

Dieppe was the site of an ill-fated Dieppe Raid by Canadian and British armed forces. More successful was the later Operation Overlord (D-Day), a massive invasion of German-occupied France by Allied troops. Caen, Cherbourg, Carentan, Falaise and other Norman towns endured many casualties in the fight for the province, which continued until the closing of the so-called Falaise gap between Chambois and Montormel, then liberation of Le Havre.

The Channel Islands were the only part of the British Commonwealthoccupied by Germany (excepting the part of Egypt occupied by the Afrika Korps at the time of the Second Battle of El Alamein, which was a protectorate and not part of the Commonwealth). The German occupation of 1940–1945 was harsh, with some island residents being taken for slave labour on the Continent; native Jews sent to concentration camps; partisan resistance and retribution; accusations of collaboration; and slave labour (primarily Russians and eastern Europeans) being brought to the islands to build fortifications.^[45][46] The Royal Navy blockaded the islands from time to time, particularly following the liberation of mainland Normandy in 1944. Intense negotiations resulted in some Red Cross humanitarian aid, but there was considerable hunger and privation during the occupation, particularly in the final months, when the population was close to starvation. The German troops on the islands surrendered on 9 May 1945, a day after the final surrender in mainland Europe.

Population[edit]

The English Channel coast is far more densely populated on the English shore. The most significant towns and cities along both the English and French sides of the Channel (each with more than 20,000 inhabitants, ranked in descending order; populations are the urban area populations from the 1999 French census, 2001 UK census, and 2001 Jersey census) are as follows:

England[edit]

• Brighton–Worthing–Littlehampton: 461,181 inhabitants, made up of:
  • Brighton: 155,919
  • Worthing: 96,964
  • Hove: 72,335
  • Littlehampton: 55,716
  • Lancing–Sompting: 30,360
• Portsmouth: 442,252, including
  • Gosport: 79,200
• Bournemouth & Poole: 383,713
• Southampton: 304,400
• Plymouth: 258,700
• Torbay (Torquay): 129,702
• Hastings–Bexhill: 126,386
• Exeter: 119,600
• Eastbourne: 106,562
• Bognor Regis: 62,141
• Folkestone–Hythe: 60,039
• Weymouth: 56,043
• Dover: 39,078
• Walmer–Deal: 35,941
• Exmouth: 32,972
• Falmouth–Penryn: 28,801
• Ryde: 22,806
• St Austell: 22,658
• Seaford: 21,851
• Falmouth: 21,635
• Penzance: 20,255

France[edit]

• Le Havre: 248,547 inhabitants
• Calais: 104,852
• Boulogne-sur-Mer: 42,537
• Cherbourg: 42,318
• Saint-Brieuc: 45,879
• Saint-Malo: 50,675
• Lannion–Perros-Guirec: 48,990
• Dieppe: 42,202
• Morlaix: 35,996
• Dinard: 25,006
• Étaples–Le Touquet-Paris-Plage: 23,994
• Fécamp: 22,717
• Eu–Le Tréport: 22,019
• Trouville-sur-Mer–Deauville: 20,406

Channel Islands[edit]

• Saint Helier, Jersey: 28,310 inhabitants
• Saint Peter Port, Guernsey: 16,488 inhabitants
• Saint Anne, Alderney: 2,200 inhabitants
• Sark: 600 inhabitants
• Herm: 60 inhabitants

Culture and languages[edit]

The two dominant cultures are English on the north shore of the Channel, French on the south. However, there are also a number of minority languages that are or were found on the shores and islands of the English Channel, which are listed here, with the Channel's name following them.

Celtic Languages

• Breton – 'Mor Breizh' (Sea of Brittany)
• Cornish – 'Mor Bretannek'
• Irish: Muir nIocht – 'Merciful Sea'

Germanic languages

• English
• Dutch – 'het Kanaal' (the Channel)

Dutch previously had a larger range, and extended into parts of modern-day France. For more information, please see French Flemish.

Romance languages

• French – 'La Manche'
• Gallo – 'Manche', 'Grand-Mè', 'Mè Bertone'^[47]
• Norman, including the Channel Island vernaculars:
  • Anglo-Norman (extinct, but fossilised in certain English law phrases)
  • Auregnais (extinct)
  • Cotentinais – 'Maunche'
  • Guernesiais – 'Ch'nal'
  • Jèrriais – 'Ch'na'

Most other languages tend towards variants of the French and English forms, but notably Welsh has 'Môr Udd'.

Economy[edit]

Shipping through[edit]

The Channel has traffic on both the UK-Europe and North Sea-Atlantic routes, and is the world's busiest seaway, with over 500 ships per day.^[48] Following an accident in January 1971 and a series of disastrous collisions with wreckage in February,^[49] the Dover TSS^[50] the world's first radar-controlled Traffic Separation Scheme was set up by the International Maritime Organization. The scheme mandates that vessels travelling north must use the French side, travelling south the English side. There is a separation zone between the two lanes.^[51]

In December 2002 the MV Tricolor, carrying £30m of luxury cars sank 32 km (20 mi) northwest of Dunkirk after collision in fog with the container ship Kariba. The cargo ship Nicola ran into the wreckage the next day. There was no loss of life.^{[citation needed]}

The shore-based long range traffic control system was updated in 2003 and there is a series of Traffic Separation Systems in operation.^[52] Though the system is inherently incapable of reaching the levels of safety obtained from aviation systems such as the Traffic Collision Avoidance System, it has reduced accidents to one or two per year.^{[citation needed]}

Marine GPS systems allow ships to be preprogrammed to follow navigational channels accurately and automatically, further avoiding risk of running aground, but following the fatal collision between Dutch Aquamarine and Ash in October 2001, Britain's Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) issued a safety bulletin saying it believed that in these most unusual circumstances GPS use had actually contributed to the collision.^[53] The ships were maintaining a very precise automated course, one directly behind the other, rather than making use of the full width of the traffic lanes as a human navigator would.

A combination of radar difficulties in monitoring areas near cliffs, a failure of a CCTV system, incorrect operation of the anchor, the inability of the crew to follow standard procedures of using a GPS to provide early warning of the ship dragging the anchor and reluctance to admit the mistake and start the engine led to the MV Willy running aground in Cawsand bay, Cornwall in January 2002. The MAIB report makes it clear that the harbour controllers were informed of impending disaster by shore observers before the crew were themselves aware.^[54] The village of Kingsand was evacuated for three days because of the risk of explosion, and the ship was stranded for 11 days.^[55][56][57]

Ferry[edit]

The number of ferry routes crossing the Strait of Dover has reduced since the Channel Tunnel opened. Current cross-channel ferry routes are:

• Dover–Calais
• Dover–Dunkirk
• Newhaven–Dieppe
• Plymouth–Roscoff
• Poole–Cherbourg
• Poole–Saint Malo
• Portsmouth–Cherbourg
• Portsmouth–Jersey and Guernsey
• Portsmouth–Le Havre
• Portsmouth–Ouistreham
• Portsmouth–Saint Malo
• Rosslare–Cherbourg
• Rosslare–Roscoff
• Weymouth–Saint Malo

Channel Tunnel[edit]

Many travellers cross beneath the Channel using the Channel Tunnel, first proposed in the early 19th century and finally opened in 1994, connecting the UK and France by rail. It is now routine to travel between Paris or Brussels and London on the Eurostar train. Freight trains also use the tunnel. Cars, coaches and lorries are carried on Eurotunnel Shuttle trains between Folkestone and Calais.

Tourism[edit]

The coastal resorts of the Channel, such as Brighton and Deauville, inaugurated an era of aristocratic tourism in the early 19th century, which developed into the seaside tourism that has shaped resorts around the world.^{[citation needed]} Short trips across the Channel for leisure purposes are often referred to as Channel Hopping.

History of Channel crossings[edit]

As one of the narrowest and most well-known international waterways lacking dangerous currents, the Channel has been the first objective of numerous innovative sea, air, and human powered crossing technologies.^{[citation needed]}Pre-historic people sailed from the mainland to England for millennia. At the end of the last Ice Age, lower sea levels even permitted walking across.^[58][59]

By boat[edit]

Pierre Andriel crossed the English Channel aboard the Élise, ex the Scottish p.s. 'Margery' in March 1816, one of the earliest seagoing voyages by steam ship.

The paddle steamer Defiance, Captain William Wager, was the first steamer to cross the Channel to Holland, arriving there on 9 May 1816.^[60]

On 10 June 1821, English-built paddle steamerRob Roy was the first passenger ferry to cross channel. The steamer was purchased subsequently by the French postal administration and renamed Henri IV and put into regular passenger service a year later. It was able to make the journey across the Straits of Dover in around three hours.^[66]

In June 1843, because of difficulties with Dover harbour, the South Eastern Railway company developed the Boulogne-sur-Mer-Folkestone route as an alternative to Calais-Dover. The first ferry crossed under the command of Captain Hayward.^[67]

In 1974 a Welsh coracle piloted by Bernard Thomas of Llechryd crossed the English Channel to France in 13½ hours. The journey was undertaken to demonstrate how the Bull Boats of the Mandan Indians of North Dakota could have been copied from coracles introduced by Prince Madog in the 12th century.^[68][69]

The Mountbatten class hovercraft (MCH) entered commercial service in August 1968, initially between Dover and Boulogne but later also Ramsgate (Pegwell Bay) to Calais. The journey time Dover to Boulogne was roughly 35 minutes, with six trips per day at peak times. The fastest crossing of the English Channel by a commercial car-carrying hovercraft was 22 minutes, recorded by the Princess Anne MCH SR-N4 Mk3 on 14 September 1995,^[70]

By air[edit]

The first aircraft to cross the Channel was a balloon in 1785, piloted by Jean Pierre François Blanchard (France) and John Jeffries (US).^[71]

Louis Blériot (France) piloted the first airplane to cross in 1909.

By swimming[edit]

The sport of Channel swimming traces its origins to the latter part of the 19th century when Captain Matthew Webb made the first observed and unassisted swim across the Strait of Dover, swimming from England to France on 24–25 August 1875 in 21 hours 45 minutes.

In 1927, at a time when fewer than ten swimmers (including the first woman, Gertrude Ederle in 1926) had managed to emulate the feat and many dubious claims were being made, the Channel Swimming Association (CSA) was founded to authenticate and ratify swimmers' claims to have swum the Channel and to verify crossing times. The CSA was dissolved in 1999 and was succeeded by two separate organisations: CSA (Ltd) and the Channel Swimming and Piloting Federation (CSPF). Both observe and authenticate cross-Channel swims in the Strait of Dover. The Channel Crossing Association was set up at about this time to cater for unorthodox crossings.

The team with the most number of Channel swims to its credit is the Serpentine Swimming Club in London,^[72] followed by the International Sri Chinmoy Marathon Team.^[73]

By the end of 2005, 811 people had completed 1,185 verified crossings under the rules of the CSA, the CSA (Ltd), the CSPF and Butlins.

The number of swims conducted under and ratified by the Channel Swimming Association to 2005 was 982 by 665 people. This includes 24 two-way crossings and three three-way crossings.

The number of ratified swims to 2004 was 948 by 675 people (456 men, 214 women). There have been 16 two-way crossings (9 by men and 7 by women). There have been three three-way crossings (2 by men and 1 by a woman). (It is unclear whether this last set of data is comprehensive or CSA only.)

The Strait of Dover is the busiest stretch of water in the world. It is governed by International Law as described in Unorthodox Crossing of the Dover Strait Traffic Separation Scheme.^[74] It states: '[In] exceptional cases the French Maritime Authorities may grant authority for unorthodox craft to cross French territorial waters within the Traffic Separation Scheme when these craft set off from the British coast, on condition that the request for authorisation is sent to them with the opinion of the British Maritime Authorities.'

The CCA, CSA, and CS&PF are the organisations escorting channel swims, because their pilots have the experience, qualifications, and equipment to guarantee the safety of the swimmers they escort.

The fastest verified swim of the Channel was by the Australian Trent Grimsey on 8 September 2012, in 6 hours 55 minutes,^[75][76] beating the previous record set in 2007 by Bulgarian swimmer Petar Stoychev.

There may have been some unreported swims of the Channel, by people intent on entering Britain in circumvention of immigration controls. A failed attempt to cross the Channel by two Syrian refugees in October 2014 only came to light when their bodies were later discovered on the shores of the North Sea in Norway and the Netherlands.^[77]

By car[edit]

On 16 September 1965, two Amphicars crossed from Dover to Calais.^[78]

Other types[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^'Busiest shipping lane'. guinnessworldrecords.com.
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4. ^MORIEUX
5. ^'Buitenlandse Aardrijkskundige Namen' [Foreign Geographical Names] (in Dutch). Nederlandse Taalunie. 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
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18. ^Sanjeev Gupta et al. 'Catastrophic flooding origin of shelf valley systems in the English Channel' Nature448, 342–345 (19 July 2007) (abstract)
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External links[edit]

• World War II Eye Witness Account – Audio Recording Air Battle over the English Channel (1940)

Running Man (Korean: 런닝맨) is a South Koreanvariety show, forming part of SBS's Good Sunday lineup. It first aired on July 11, 2010.

Running Man was classified as an 'urban action variety'; a genre of variety shows in an urban environment.^[1] The MCs and guests were to complete missions at a landmark to win the race.^[2] The show has since shifted to a more familiar reality-variety show concept focused on games. It has garnered attention as being the comeback program for Yoo Jae-suk, the main MC of the program, after leaving Good Sunday's Family Outing in February 2010.^[3]

The show has become popular in other parts of Asia, and has gained online popularity among Hallyu fans, having been fansubbed into various languages, such as English, Persian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Thai, Vietnamese, Chinese, Malay, Indonesian, Burmese, Arabic, Russian, and Turkish.^[4][5]

The show has made it to the list of Business Insider's 20 TV Shows of 2016.^[6]

Since April 2017, Running Man is airing as the first part of Good Sunday at 4:50 pm KST and competing against KBS2's The Return of Superman and MBC's King of Mask Singer.^[7]Running Man previously aired at 6:25 pm KST on Sundays, as the second part of Good Sunday, competing against KBS2's 1 Night 2 Days.

• 1Format
• 2Personnel
• 8Other works
• 9Controversy

Format[edit]

Current[edit]

As of episode 48, the members have taken part in a series of missions to become the winner(s) at the end of the race. Missions form the basis of Running Man as members try to avoid punishment in earlier episodes or to win prizes. Multiple missions are presented in each episode, with the highlight of Running Man being race missions. The format of the show has veered away from the 'race mission + others' to 'one continuous race + missions'.

Previous[edit]

Personnel[edit]

Production staff[edit]

The staff run the games, often showing up on cameras either by actively participating in the game or influencing the outcome of various missions. This includes the personal cameramen (VJs), production directors (PDs), floor directors (FDs), stylists, boom operators, etc.

Chief producer, Nam Seung-yong, is responsible for the production of the program, with PD Jo Hyo-jin, Im Hyung-taek, and Kim Joo-hyung^[13] mainly responsible for the directing and production of the recordings of the program since inception. Other PDs have joined the program to assist as the program shifts from a single landmark to multiple locations for recording, notably Hwang Seon-man and Lee Hwan-jin. FD Go Dong-wan assists in the recordings of the program and is known to be shown on camera many times, as well as delivering and assisting the members in missions. Producer Kim Joo-hyung has left the show as of episode 182 as he was reassigned to Inkigayo.^[14]

Each member has their own personal cameramen who follow them around exclusively during recordings. Notable cameramen include Ryu Kwon-ryeol (Yoo Jae-suk's primary VJ), Kim Yoo-seok (Ji Suk-jin's primary VJ), Choi Yoon-sang (Lee Kwang-soo's primary VJ), Yoon Sung-yong (Haha's primary VJ), Sung Gyu (Song Ji-hyo's primary VJ), Jo Seong-Oh (Gary's primary VJ, now Yang Se-chan's primary VJ), Kim Ki-jin (Kim Jong-kook's primary VJ), and Kim Si-yeon (Jeon So-min's primary VJ)

On November 19, 2014, the show's head director, Jo Hyo-jin, announced his departure from the show after working with the members for four years.^[15]

On March 20, 2016, the show's main PD, Im Hyung-taek left the show (as of episode 291) as he became the producer of Hurry Up, Brother, resulting in new generation PDs to take over, notably PD Lee Hwan-jin, PD Jung Chul-min, and PD Park Yong-woo.^[16] FD Go Dong-wan also announced his leave via his Instagram.^[17]

On July 3, 2016, SBS confirmed the return of producer Kim Joo-hyung to the show.^[18] That same month, it is confirmed that he will be the new main PD of the show.^[19] However, it didn't last long as PD Kim Joo-hyung announced that he is leaving the show shortly after. Subsequently, PD Lee Hwan-jin has taken over as the main PD of Running Man until March 2017. As of April 2017, Running Man main PD is Jeong Cheol-min.^[20]In July 2018, PD Jeong Cheol-min took a break and PD Lee Hwan-jin would temporarily take over as main PD of the show.^[21] PD Jeong Cheol-min returned to the show as main PD in May 2019 after taking a break and producing two seasons of SBS show Village Survival, the Eight, while PD Lee Hwan-jun takes a break.

Guests with the most appearances[edit]

During its run, some of the guests were occasionally featured or invited to the show. These guests were notable for their constant appearances and were often considered to be the '8th/9th/10th Running Man'. The following list is the list of the guests who appeared the most often as of 26 May 2019.

List of episodes[edit]

List of guests[edit]

Many guests have taken part in Running Man. The following is a compilation of guests and the number of times they have been on the show.With regards to guest-turned-members (Song Ji-hyo, Jeon So-min, Yang Se-chan) or former members of the show (Lizzy, Song Joong-ki, Gary), only the times they were a guest are counted. The guests were sorted according to their appearances and the number of episodes appeared.

Reception[edit]

The first episode of the show received mixed reviews. According to Asiae the show concept was promising but the crew could not use the location to full potential and the pace was not fast and dynamic enough.^[22]

Despite a slow start, Running Man became increasingly popular in South Korea and throughout Asia.^{[23][24][25][26][27]} In its home country the show is watched by 2.1 million people on average.^[28] Due to the existence of fansubs, it is watched outside of Asia as well, being translated into English, Spanish and Arabic, among others.^[29]

According to The Straits Times, the popularity of the show is due to its unpredictability, the comedy involved, the celebrity guests and the chemistry between the regular cast members.^[30] Assistant professor Liew Kai Khiun at the Nanyang Technological University attributes the appeal of Running Man to the ability of using public space in a creative way: 'Running Man is about taking audiences to the various corners of not only South Korea, but the region as well. In the rather fast-paced urban societies in Asia, the show helps to provide release from the daily tensions that such streets and buildings are associated with.'^[30] Liew thinks that the cast members are not particularly good looking, thus have nothing to lose, even if they 'wrestle with one another like children'.^[30]

According to producer Jo Hyo-jin, the show is popular because the concept of having to choose a winner is culturally easy to understand. He also named the good relationship between the regular members as one of the reasons for the show's success.^[31] Celebrity guests like Super Junior, Girls' Generation and f(x) play an important part in the success as well, although they sometimes induce criticism. For example, after the airing of the Big Bang episodes, some viewers complained that the band won too easily. Jo Hyo-jin, however, denied any special treatment of the celebrities. Jo explained that fans are also highly critical of the games, therefore it is not possible for the crew to reuse games without changing them.^[31]

The regular members of Running Man have held several fan meetings throughout Asia. In October 2013, their Singapore fan meeting drew a crowd of 3000.^[32] When the cast arrived for shooting in Vietnam and other countries, they were greeted by thousands of fans at the airport.^[33]

Ratings[edit]

In the ratings below, the highest rating for the show will be in red, and the lowest rating for the show will be in blue each year.

• Good Sunday divides its program into two parts, Running Man airs as Good Sunday Part 1.

• Ratings listed below are the individual corner ratings of Running Man. (Note: Individual corner ratings do not include commercial time, which regular ratings include.)

• Ratings listed below are the individual corner ratings of Running Man. (Note: Individual corner ratings do not include commercial time, which regular ratings include.)

• Ratings listed below are the individual corner ratings of Running Man. (Note: Individual corner ratings do not include commercial time, which regular ratings include.)

• Ratings listed below are the individual corner ratings of Running Man. (Note: Individual corner ratings do not include commercial time, which regular ratings include.)

• Ratings listed below are the individual corner ratings of Running Man. (Note: Individual corner ratings do not include commercial time, which regular ratings include.)